Overcoming the Financial Challenge of Going to College Essay

Overcoming the Financial Challenge of Going to College - Essay Example This finding is due to the fact that the average cost of a college education is around $23,000 per annum and that meant a lot of money for many Americans especially that the economy is still reeling from the financial crisis (Reuters). Many opted and forced to work than pursue a college degree because they simply cannot afford it and thus drop out rate in the United States continue to rise. This case of students dropping out due to financial difficulty is not isolated. This is so pervasive that it can be said that the drop out figure in college in the US is already alarming to the point that it could already undermine the country’s competitiveness. In a study conducted by Harvard with data from Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, United States has the highest dropout rate in the industrialized world. Among the 18 countries surveyed, United States lagged last with a drop out rate of 46 percent. This figure is very far from Japan which has a huge 89 percent gr aduation rate and former Soviet states such as Slovakia with 63 percent and Poland with 61 percent (Reuters). These figures are considered alarming because drop out rates are increasing in an inversely proportional manner to what is required in the workforce in the near future. Instead of increasing the graduation rate as it is projected that 59 % of jobs will already require a college degree by 2018, it is the drop out rate that is increasing with the country having the graduation rate of 38.3 percent (O’Connor). It seems that jobs in the future especially the high paying ones will not be filled by Americans especially with what the current unemployment statistics show that people without a college degree has twice the chance to be unemployed. In the state of Florida, the figure is also equally startling. O’Connor reported that the State is not producing enough college graduates who would fill up future job market demand. It is even below the already national low nati onal gradation rate of 38.3 percent, graduating only 36.5 percent of its enrollees. This same issue was highlighted was Dr. Eduardo J. Padron, President of Miami Dade where he is not pleased with the graduation rate of those who are college ready registering only a 39% graduation rate. He stressed that given this not so pleasing figures, the focus to complete college today â€Å"is very intense and urgent† – â€Å"to have a standards and practice from outside the College, or to define completion from within; to define it by our success† (Padron). This concern of Dr. Padron about â€Å"Standards and practice from outside the College, or to define completion from within; to define it by our success† was about the quality of education that students receive in schools and their appropriateness in real world setting. The problem about low graduation is further beset by this issue because it implies that the already low graduates in the United States does not s atisfy the quantity and quality of what is needed in the workforce. The current educational system of the United States has been widely critique as not grounded on the realities on the workplace as do not teaching the students how to succeed and become financially independent (Kiyosaki). So the actual problem of the educational system in the US is not only confined to low rate of graduates but also the quality of its graduates. Dr.

The Lamb and The Tyger by William Blake Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

The Lamb and The Tyger by William Blake - Essay Example The Lamb is meek, vulnerable and harmless. The picture of the Lamb’s feeding â€Å"by the stream and o’er the mead† suggests God’s kindness in creation and echoes similar descriptions as seen in the Bible particularly Psalms 23, as well as the parables of Jesus. In the second stanza, Blake reminds the readers that the God who created the Lamb is also like the Lamb, considering that Jesus is known as the â€Å"Lamb of God.† The poem seems to be essentially about God’s love revealed through His care for The Lamb and the child and about the apparent paradox that God became both child and Lamb in coming, as Jesus, into the world. The image of a child is also associated with Jesus. In the Bible, Jesus shows a special preference for children. Likewise, the Bible depicts the childhood of Jesus, showing him to be guileless and vulnerable. â€Å"The Tyger† on the other hand is a poem that tells of the realities of life through the magnificence of a tiger. For generations, The Tyger has been interpreted differently but its fundamental meaning is the natural and creative energy of human life, an inspiring shape (â€Å"symmetry†) that no one should try to control. Blake’s poetry tells of the extremes of human experiences, which is richly portrayed in his poem, â€Å"The Tyger†. The tiger is fierce, active and predatory portraying the extremes of human experience. The poem encompasses the darkest forces of ignorance which are transcended by the divine, transcendental consciousness which combines both polarities of light and darkness. The questions presented in â€Å"The Tyger† are directed at the tiger as well as the reader. These are rhetorical questions because no answer is given and answers to these questions are far from obvious. Take into consideration the answer to the first question which may be â€Å"God†

MMP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

MMP - Essay Example 40% of the whole study sample will be composed of students who do not drink alcohol. Data will be collected through the survey techniques including face-to-face interviews, observation, and questionnaires. The study will focus on the drinking lifestyles or trends and its effects in the institutions of higher learning including. Through regression analysis, the data collected is analyzed to ascertain the effect of over indulgence in alcoholic beverages on students’ life, health, social life, and academic performance. The results from the drinking group are analyzed and compared with the control results of non-drinking students. The study should confirm that there is a great deal of dangers and effects of students consuming alcohol in campus. It affects their health since some of them are extremely addicted and cannot do without it. This makes them chronically ill with the conditions such as liver cirrhosis. Alcohol also leads to poor performance of students since some of them attend lectures when drunk; hence, they can barely understand anything at all. It is a cause of poor study life since one rarely has the time to sit down and read. Alcohol consumption lowers concentration to an extremely critical level. Alcohol has a great deal of dangers and effects in the institutions of higher learning. It not only affects the consumer but also the people around him or her. It makes daily learning difficult to those who are addicted to drinking. It can also affect the general learning process of an institution. This is a research project that was held to find out the relationship between the consumption of alcohol and the illnesses reported by the university students. It was found that those who drink heavily experience a wide range of chronic health problems; those who drink acutely suffer from less serious health conditions, such as mild

The Lamb and The Tyger by William Blake Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

The Lamb and The Tyger by William Blake - Essay Example The Lamb is meek, vulnerable and harmless. The picture of the Lamb’s feeding â€Å"by the stream and o’er the mead† suggests God’s kindness in creation and echoes similar descriptions as seen in the Bible particularly Psalms 23, as well as the parables of Jesus. In the second stanza, Blake reminds the readers that the God who created the Lamb is also like the Lamb, considering that Jesus is known as the â€Å"Lamb of God.† The poem seems to be essentially about God’s love revealed through His care for The Lamb and the child and about the apparent paradox that God became both child and Lamb in coming, as Jesus, into the world. The image of a child is also associated with Jesus. In the Bible, Jesus shows a special preference for children. Likewise, the Bible depicts the childhood of Jesus, showing him to be guileless and vulnerable. â€Å"The Tyger† on the other hand is a poem that tells of the realities of life through the magnificence of a tiger. For generations, The Tyger has been interpreted differently but its fundamental meaning is the natural and creative energy of human life, an inspiring shape (â€Å"symmetry†) that no one should try to control. Blake’s poetry tells of the extremes of human experiences, which is richly portrayed in his poem, â€Å"The Tyger†. The tiger is fierce, active and predatory portraying the extremes of human experience. The poem encompasses the darkest forces of ignorance which are transcended by the divine, transcendental consciousness which combines both polarities of light and darkness. The questions presented in â€Å"The Tyger† are directed at the tiger as well as the reader. These are rhetorical questions because no answer is given and answers to these questions are far from obvious. Take into consideration the answer to the first question which may be â€Å"God†

Survey for health research and methodlogy class Essay

Survey for health research and methodlogy class - Essay Example In the U.S., both the medical community and public have shown more interest in different alternative medical practices over the past couple of years. The establishment of an Office of Alternative Medicine by the National Institutes of Health in 1992 was testimony to the growing interest by the U.S. healthcare fraternity in alternative medicines. The Office later noted that therapies that were then considered unconventional had the potential of gaining more acceptance and becoming conventional in the future (Berman, Singh, Lao, Singh, Ferentz & Hartnoll, 1995). Recent studies conducted in the United States of America, Britain, and Australia among other countries reveal that alternative medicines are getting wider acceptance and attention among physicians and members of the public. A study conducted in 1990 by Eisenberg and other researchers, for example, revealed that about 30% of the American population used at least one form or another of complementary therapy (Berman, Singh, Lao, Singh, Ferentz & Hartnoll, 1995). In Britain, the number of people practicing alternative medicine grew 5.6 times more than physicians. Alternative medicines are used in the treatment of various ailments ranging from fevers to aches, pains and cancers. A study published in the European Journal of Cancer in 2000 revealed that out of the 1023 women suffering from breast cancer, roughly 22% had consulted with an alternative medicine practitioner in the previous twelve months (Rees, Feigel, Vickers, Zollman, McGurk & Smith, 2000). The attitudes of physicians and patients toward alternative treatments for cancer have been a subject of great interest for many researchers especially considering the effects of physician attitudes on patients. In her study on the relationship between patients’ use of alternative cancer treatments and physicians reactions toward them, Bourgeault (1996) established that patient –physician

Johannes Kepler Essay Example for Free

Johannes Kepler Essay Johannes Kepler was born in the midst of an exciting and confusing time for Europe. The continent was entering the Renaissance, a reawakening of thought across the continent. By the time of Keplers birth, the Renaissance had reinvigorated European culture, politics, philosophy, religion, literature, and science. The authority of the Catholic Church was challenged for the first time in centuries by the reformer Martin Luther, who pointed out the wrongs that he felt the Church had committed. Luthers rebellion spurred the Protestant Reformation, in which Luther and his followers freed themselves from the authority of the Church, creating a new sect of Christianity. Kepler, a Protestant, often found himself caught in the midst of the resulting tension between Catholicism and Protestantism. Catholics frequently persecuted him. A similar challenge of scientific authority was also in progress, a radical shift in thought that later became known as the Scientific Revolution. Scientists in all fields were beginning to question the wisdom of the ancient philosophers who had molded their disciplines. They gradually began rely on objective facts and observation and to turn away from the mysticism, religion, and unfounded theorizing that had previously dominated the field. This drastic change in scientific practices and beliefs was most apparent in the field of astronomy. Physics and astronomy had been dominated by the work of Aristotle, a philosopher from the time of ancient Greece, and Ptolemy, an astronomer from the second century A.D. Astronomy was rooted in both philosophy and theology, and it was difficult for scientists to separate their work from that of the mystics or the clergy. Through the work of the four fathers of the astronomical revolution, Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton, both the practice of astronomy and mans view of the universe were transformed. Astronomers rejected the Ptolemaic view of the universe that had held court for centuries. They supplanted Ptolemys earth-centered universe with a new sun-centered system. These modern thinkers, far ahead of their time, persevered against the mockery, apathy, and anger of their peers. And eventually, through Newtons synthesis of math, physics, and astronomy, they triumphed. The work of these astronomers shook the world. They denied everything that humans had held certain for centuries. The excitement and confusion that these astronomers left in their wake in is reflected in John Donnes seventeenth century poem An Anatomy of the World – The First Anniversarie. As he wrote, And new Philosophy calls all in doubt. Tis all in pieces, all coherence gone. General Summary Johannes Kepler was born in Germany in 1571, in the middle of the Scientific Revolution. The weak and sickly child was abandoned by his father Heinrich in early childhood. Because his family moved around so much, it took Kepler twice as long as usual to get through elementary school. He eventually graduated, moving on to a theological seminary and then to the University of Tuebingen. At the university, Kepler decided to pursue a graduate degree in theology, but he was soon distracted from that goal. A Protestant school in the Austrian town of Gratz offered him a job as a professor of math and astronomy. Although Kepler believed he had no special skills in those subjects, he took the job. Once there, he turned his attention toward deciphering the mysteries of the universe. Kepler was convinced that God had created a universe with some discernable pattern or structure, and he devoted himself to figuring out what it might be. In 1595 Kepler decided that the planets were spaced as they were because the planetary orbits were arranged around geometric figures: the perfect solids. Perfect solids are three-dimensional figures whose sides are all identical, and Kepler was convinced that God had used these forms to build the universe. He elaborated on this view in his first book, the Mysterium Cosmographicum, or the Cosmic Mystery. Keplers theory was incorrect, but the book was the first major work in support of the Copernican system since Copernicuss death fifty years before. The book was also significant because Kepler was the first major astronomer in centuries to address physical reality, rather than being content with a mere mathematical description of the universe. Kepler could not quite get his data to fit his theory; he needed a source of more accurate data. He found this in Tycho de Brahe, a wealthy Danish astronomer. Tycho was the best observational astronomer of his age, and Kepler decided that only Tychos observations would do. So Kepler traveled to Prague to work in Tychos lab. Tycho, an arrogant, demanding, and unpleasant employer, died after only a year. But Kepler worked for seven more years on the problem he had started on while there: constructing the orbit of Mars. Keplers work on Mars led him to discover his first two planetary laws: that the planets travel in elliptical orbits and that they sweep out equal areas of their orbits in equal times. He published his results in 1609 in the Astronomia Nova, or the New Astronomy, revolutionizing astronomy and greatly simplifying the Copernican system. Kepler was considered one of the top astronomers in Europe–although not because of his published work. Few of his peers recognized the importance of his planetary laws, and few even accepted that they were true. It was difficult for his colleagues to recognize him as a scientist of the modern age, when his work remained mired in the mysticism of the past. The years just before and after the Astronomia Nova were a professional triumph for Kepler – he was well known and well respected. He spent these years researching lenses, as well as astronomy, adding several major contributions to the field of optics. At the same time, his personal life was taking a turn for the worse. In quick succession, Keplers wife and favorite son died, and his patron went insane and abdicated the throne. His new home, Prague, was torn apart by civil war, and his mother was accused of being a witch. Through it all, Kepler continued to work toward his greatest goal: finding a way to explain the structure of the universe. He had been forced to abandon most of his theory of the perfect solids, and needed so mething new to replace it. After years of thought, he came up with a new idea: the theory of universal harmonies. Kepler decided that the planets were spaced around the harmonic ration of another set of geometrical figures. Once again, he believed he had looked directly into the mind of God. Once again, his theory was completely wrong. Butthe pursuit of an incorrect theory led him to a stroke of scientific genius. In 1618, Kepler published the Harmonice Mundi, or the Harmony of the World, in which he explained his new harmonic theory. Keplers third law offered a specific mathematical relationship between the distance of a planets orbit from the sun and the time it took a planet to circle the sun. Kepler thought little of this law, as did his peers, because it made little sense to him at the time. It was only later, when Sir Isaac Newton created the theory of universal gravitation, that the fundamental importance of this law became clear. Kepler continued to publish important works. In 1619, he published Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae, a summary of the Copernican system, adjusted to accommodate Keplers laws. The Copernican system as we now know it is basically the one offered in the Epitome. Then, in 1627, Kepler published the Tabulae Rudolphine, or the Rudolphine Tables, a comprehensive list of astronomical observations, predictions, and explanations, all based on Tychos data and Keplers discoveries. Keplers final publication came a few years after his death. Though filled with scientific explanations, it is not actually a scientific work – instead, it is a science fiction story. Somnium, or Dream, tells the story of a young boys trip to the moon. Much of the story seems to be a thinly veiled autobiography. However, the Somnium was also packed with notes on the scientific ramifications of Keplers discoveries. The accuracy of his prediction of what a lunar journey would be like reveals what remarkable physical intuition he had. Kepler is perhaps the least known of the major figures of the Scientific Revolution. His lack of fame may be due to the fact that he is difficult to classify – he seems less modern than the other scientists of the time, and he relies on mysticism and religion. His scientific contributions are themselves harder to simplify than those of Copernicus or Newton. But while he may be less known than his peers, Kepler is no less important. Physics and astronomy had been separated for two thousand years before Keplers birth. It was an incredible leap for him to put the two together – and in doing so, he paved the way for the Newtonian revolution that was to come. Important People, Terms, and Events People Copernicus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer and clergyman who, in 1543, introduced a new heliocentric system of the universe. In Copernicuss system, the planets revolved on a complex system of epicycles, but they all revolve around the sun. This was a revolutionary idea in the sixteenth century. Everyone was firmly convinced that the earth was motionless at the center of the universe. To imagine that it moved around the sun seemed ridiculous. It took several decades for the Copernican system to become fully accepted by astronomers and the public. Kepler was the first major astronomer to publicly acknowledge his support of it. Tycho de Brahe Tycho de Brahe was a Danish nobleman who made a name for himself in the late sixteenth century as Europes best observational astronomer. He kept a closely guarded collection of astronomical observations, the most accurate astronomical data available at the time. Eager to use Tychos figures to develop his own system, Kepler traveled to Prague to work in Tychos lab. In addition to being a brilliant astronomer, Tycho was also an arrogant and temperamental man. Tycho and Kepler had a love-hate relationship; they respected one another, but each was also jealous of the others achievements and potential. Several times, Kepler fled the lab, only to return full of apologies. When Tycho died, he expressed a hope that Kepler would use his data to develop the Tychonic system of the universe, in which the planets orbited the sun, which orbited the earth. Instead, Kepler applied Tychos observations to the Copernican system, which led him to discover his first two laws. Galileo Galilei Galileo was an Italian astronomer who discovered the moons of Jupiter. Galileo was the first major astronomer to use a telescope to observe the heavens. When these observations yielded findings that the scientific community was reluctant to believe, Kepler lent him public support Galileo later became a symbol of sciences break from religion during the scientific revolution. He was put on trial by the Catholic Church and convicted of heresy for his support of the Copernican system Heinrich Kepler Keplers father, Heinrich, was an itinerant criminal who repeatedly abandoned his family. At one point he owned a tavern, at another, he was nearly hanged for an alleged crime. One of Keplers younger brothers was forced to run away from home when Heinrich threatened to sell him. Heinrich left for good in 1588 – he was not missed. Katherine Kepler Katherine Kepler, Keplers mother, was born Katherine Guldenmann. She was the daughter of an innkeeper and the niece of a woman who had been burned at the stake as a witch. Kepler later described her as a petty, angry, quarrelsome woman. She came back into Keplers life in 1615, when her fellow villagers accused her of being a witch. Kepler was quick to come to her defense. After five years of argument and negotiation, Katherine was interrogated under threat of torture. When she continued to deny being a witch, she was finally released. She was driven from her town and died six months later. Michael Maestlin Michael Maestlin was Keplers most influential teacher at the University of Tuebingen. Maestlin was the first to teach Kepler about the Copernican system. In the classroom, Maestlin was a strong supporter of the Copernican system, but on paper, he continued to propound the Ptolemaic system. Kepler turned to Maestlin for help and advice throughout his life, but Maestlin seems to have grown tired of his troublesome student. He often ignored Keplers letters for years at a time. Barbara Muehleck Kepler married Barbara Muehleck in 1597. It was a marriage of convenience, not love. Keplers friends had decided it was time for him to marry and had chosen Barbara as a good mate; Kepler acquiesced. They were married for fourteen years and had four children. Barbara died in 1611 of the Hungarian fever. Susanna Pettinger Two years after his first wife died, Kepler married the 24-year-old Susanna Pettinger. They had eleven children together and Kepler had nothing negative to say about her in later life – a ringing endorsement considering the way he described most of his family members. Ptolemy Ptolemy, an astronomer from the second century A.D., formulated a system of the universe that lasted for over one thousand years after his death. His system placed the earth at the center of the universe, with the planets and the stars revolving around it. Ptolemy insisted that the planets in his system moved with uniform circular motion. Because this is not actually how the planets move, he was forced to introduce the following mathematical devices. The deferent is the main circle around which each planet orbits the earth. An epicycle is a smaller circle around which the planet orbits the deferent. Finally, the equant is an imaginary point in the exact center of the planetary orbits. Ptolemys system was so complex that, by the time of Copernicus, it contained somewhere between forty and eighty epicycles. Terms Astronomia Nova  · The Astronomia Nova, or the New Astronomy was Keplers masterpiece. Published in 1609, it was the result of over eight years of work. Kepler spent those years trying to work out the shape of the orbit of Mars. Using Tychos data about the motion of the planets, Kepler was finally able to determine the shape of the orbit more accurately than anyone who had come before him. This resulted in the formation of his first two laws, which were published in the Astronomia Nova. Geocentric  · A geocentric system is one in which the earth is at the center of the universe. For thousands of years, scientists, philosophers, and theologians believed that the universe was geocentric. They were unwilling to believe Copernicus when he challenged that assumption. Harmonice Mundi  · The Harmonice Mundi, or Harmony of the World was the culmination of Keplers life-long study of the structure of the universe. Published in 1618, it described a system in which the spacing between th e planets was determined by universal harmonies. The theory was wrong, but the book is nonetheless important, as it marks the first appearance of Keplers third law. Heliocentric  · A heliocentric system is one in which the sun is at the center of the universe. The system that Copernicus introduced was a heliocentric system. This was not a completely original idea – some of the philosophers of ancient Greece had imagined that the universe might be constructed in this way. However, the dominant view had always been that the universe was geocentric, so Copernicuss claims were a shock to the European system. Keplers Three Laws  · Kepler is best known today for his contribution of the three planetary laws, which were instrumental in Newtons later development of his theory of universal gravitation. They are as follows: 1. The planets travel around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun located at one focus. 2. As the planets travel around their orbits, they sweep out the same amount of area per unit of time, no matter where they are on the orbit. 3. The distance a planets orbit is from the sun, cubed, is directly proportional to the time it takes the planet to travel around the orbit, squared. Mathematically, this can be stated as a 3/p 2 = K where a is the distance a planets orbit is from the sun, p is the period, the time it takes for a planet to revolve around the sun once, and K is a constant. Mysterium Cosmographicum  · Published in 1597, the Mysterium Cosmographicum, or Mysteries of the Cosmos, was Keplers first major work. It described his theory of the perfect solids, which, although he never fully admitted it, was completely wrong. More importantly, the Mysterium was Keplers first step to rejoining physics and astronomy, as he grasped for physical explanation for the structure of the universe. He was the first astronomer in centuries to do so. It is in the Mysterium that Kepler first proposes that the sun be moved to the exact, physical center of the universe, and that a force from the sun is responsible for moving the planets around their orbits. The Mysterium was also the major work in fifty years to support the Copernican system. Perfect solid  · A perfect solid a three dimensional figure, such as a cube, whose sides are all identical. There are only five perfect solids: the tetrahedron (which has four triangular sides), cube (six square sides), octahedron (eight triangular sides), dodecahedron (twelve pentagonal sides), and icosahedron (twenty triangular sides). Each perfect solid can be inscribed in and circumscribed around a sphere. In the beginning of his career, Kepler believed that the planetary orbits could all be inscribed in one of the perfect solids. Growing Up Johannes Kepler was born on December 27, 1571, in the small German town of Weil- der-Stadt. He was born at the tail end of the European Renaissance, an age of intellectual, religious, cultural, and scientific transformation. But Keplers own early childhood showed no such signs of enlightenment. The young Kepler was trapped in his own period of personal depression and darkness. The Kepler family tree had distinguished roots – his arrogant grandfather Sebaldus Kepler had even served as town mayor. But by the time Kepler came on the scene, the family had fallen into a state of disrepair, filled with tormented personalities, hot tempers, invalids, and criminals. Sebaldus and his wife, Katherine Mueller, had twelve children. Heinrich, Keplers father, was the oldest surviving child; three others had died in infancy. When he was twenty-four years old, Heinrich married Katherine Guldenmann – Johannes was their first child. Katherine had a slightly less auspicious pedigree than Heinrich. She was an innkeepers daughter whose aunt had been accused of being a witch and had been burned at the stake. Heinrich was a restless husband who abandoned his family often. When Kepler was only three, Heinrich left to fight the Protestant armies in the Netherlands. This was a public embarrassment for the Keplers – one of many that Heinrich would cause – since the Kepler family itself was solidly Protestant. Heinrich came and left frequently through Keplers youth. At one point, he was accused of a crime and almost hanged. After briefly running a tavern, the itinerant Heinrich abandoned the family for good in 1588. Johannes Kepler had six brothers and sisters, three of whom died in childhood. Of the remaining three, two grew up to be normal, law-abiding citizens. The last one, Heinrich, was an epileptic who was always either sick or in trouble. He eventually ran away from home after Heinrich Sr. threatened to sell him. Historians have an incredibly detailed sketch of Keplers childhood, thanks, in large part, to the scientist himself. At the age of twenty-six, Kepler drafted a horoscope of his entire family. He also spent a fair amount of time analyzing his own personality. Kepler recorded everything, including the time of his conception (May 16, 1571), the length of his mothers pregnancy (224 days, nine hours, and fifty-three minutes), and his own opinions of each member of his family. The image we are left with is not a pretty one. Grandfather Sebaldus was remarkably arrogantshort tempered and obstinate and Grandmother Katherine was restless, clever, and lyingan inveterate troublemaker, extreme in her hatred, a bearer of grudges Mother Katherine is described as small, thin, swarthy, gossiping, and quarrelsome. But it is Keplers father who bears the brunt of Keplers familial criticisms. In Keplers autobiographical study, Heinrich appears as a man vicious, inflexible, quarrelsome, and doomed to a bad end. Kepler spares no one in his autobiography, least of all himself. He portrays himself as a sickly child, weak in health and personality, always picked on by other children. He describes a miserable childhood filled with illness, injury, and skin disorders. His chronological listing of events from his early days reveals that Kepler was not one to look on the bright side – the list is a recital of moments of suffering and weakness. In 1575, Kepler almost died of smallpox; in 1585, he suffered from a series of sores, wounds, and skin problems. The litany of complaints breaks for only a few events, including the sighting of a comet in 1577 and, a few years later, a sighting of a lunar eclipse. As these astronomical events marked a few bright moments in a childhood of darkness, astronomy itself would soon illuminate Keplers troubled adult life.

Transformer Oil Or Insulating Oil Engineering Essay

Transformer Oil Or Insulating Oil Engineering Essay CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Transformer is one of the most useful appliances ever invented. Transformer can raise or lower the voltage or current in alternating current (AC) network, the circuit can be isolated from one another, and to increase or decrease the apparent value of a capacitor, inductor, or resistor. Furthermore, the transformer allows us to transmit electricity long distances and to circulate safely in factories and homes. (Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems, 6th Edition). The cost of a transformer is high. The failure of one transformer resulted in a loss in terms of the price of one transformer or in terms of energy supply disruptions to consumers. Therefore, to monitor the transformer oil is one the right way and good for detecting the causes of damage to transformers. 2.2 Transformer Transformer is one of the most important electrical devices. Transformer is widely used in power systems and electronic devices. Transformer can also raise and lower voltage levels and the alternating current to suit application. Transformer can transfer power from one section to another on the same frequency but different voltage levels and currents. Transformer basically consists of two coils of a conductor which acts as an inductor electrically separate but magnetically attached. Transformer consists of two loops wrapped around the core base, core and coil which are a part of the transformer structures. Figure 2.1 shows the general structure of a transformer. When alternating current connected to the transformer primary windings, current will flow through the primary winding. Alternating current flows will create an alternating magnetic flux in the transformer core. The magnetic flux can flow to the secondary winding of the transformer through the transformer core. http://www.electricityforum.com/images/electrical-transformer-design.jpg Figure 2.1 General Structure of Transformer According to the Faraday law, the electromotive force or voltage is induced in the coil-winding transformer when the flux is changes in value. Because of the magnetic flux in the transformer core is an alternating flux whose value is constantly changing over time, the electromotive force or voltage is always induced in the coil-winding transformer. Electromotive force in the primary winding is known as the self-induced electromotive force is due to the flux generated by the coil itself. While the electromotive force induced in the secondary winding is known as mutual induction electromotive force due to the induced electromotive force is caused by magnetic flux generated from the primary winding. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows: (Equation 2.1) By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an AC voltage to be stepped up by making Ns greater than Np, or stepped down by making Ns less than Np. There are many types of transformer are designed to meet the specific industrial applications. These include autotransformer, control, current, distribution, general-purpose, instrument, isolation, potential (voltage), power, step-up, and step-down. To avoid rapid damage of the insulating materials inside a transformer, sufficient cooling of the windings and the core must be provided. Indoor transformers below 200 kVA can be directly cooled by the natural flow of the surrounding air. The metallic housing is equipped with ventilating louvres so that the convection currents that can flow over the windings and around the core. Large transformers can be constructed in the same way, but the forced circulation of fresh air must be provided. Such as a dry-type transformers are used inside the building, away from the hostile atmosphere. Distribution transformers below 200 kVA are usually immersed in mineral oil and sealed in a steel tank. Oil carries the heat away to the tank, which it is lost by radiation and convection to the outside air. Insulating oil is much better than air, consequently, it is often used in high voltage transformers. As the power rating increased, external radiators are added to increase cooling surface of the tank contains oil. Oil circulates around the transformer windings and moving through the radiator, where heat released into the surrounding air. For still higher levels, cooling fans blow air over the radiators. For transformers in the megawatt range, cooling can be effected by the oil-water heat exchanger. Hot oil drawn from the transformer tank is pumped into the heat exchanger where it flowing through the pipes that are in contact with cold water. Such as heat exchanger are very effective, but also very expensive, because water itself must continuously cool and recirculated. Some large transformers are designed to have multiple ratings, depending on the cooling method used. Thus, the transformer may have triple ratings depending on whether it is cooled by: the natural circulation of air (AO) for 18000 kVA, or forced-air cooling with fans (FA) for 24000 kVA, or the forced circulation of oil accompanied by forced-air cooling (FOA) for 32000 kVA. These elaborate cooling systems are nevertheless economical because they enable a much greater output from the transformer of a given size and weight. The type of transformer cooling is designated by the following symbols: AA dry-type, self-cooled AFA dry-type, forced-air cooled OA oil-immersed, self-cooled OA/FA oil-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air cooled AO/FA/FOA oil-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air cooled/forced-air, forced-oil cooled The temperature rise by the resistance of oil-immersed transformers is either 55 °C or 65 °C. The temperature must be kept low to preserve the oil quality. By contrast, the temperature rise of dry-type transformer may be as high as 180 °C, depending on the type of insulation used. TEMCo offers the largest selection of High Voltage Transformers.GE Ventilated Dry-type Transformer Figure 2.2 Dry-Type Transformer Figure 2.3 Oil-Immersed Transformer 2.3 Transformer Oil Transformer oil or insulating oil is usually a highly-refined mineral oil that is stable at high temperatures and has excellent electrical insulating properties. It is used in oil-filled transformers. Transformer oil is likened to be the blood within the transformer body. It must be periodically tested to monitor condition of the transformer. Transformer oil serves three basic functions which are to insulate, to cool and maintain the transformer functions at all times. To keep these functions the industry has agreed on certain standards. The two leading transformer oil specifications in the world are IEC 60296 and ASTM D 3487. In these standards there are many specific requirement and limits based on physical and chemical properties. Many of these properties and their limitations stem from the chemistry of refined mineral oils in combination with application specific requirements of electrical insulation. In an age when alternative to mineral oil being developed, it is important both to know what is desirable and what is likely to achieved in technical terms. Whereas some brands of transformer oil could only meet the specifications, the others excel. In the end, transformer oil consumers should decide which properties are most important to their intended use. Technical specifications also have an impact on issues such as asset management, maintenance planning and investment budget. To aid decisions in these fields it is helpful to have a basic understanding of the science underlying specifications and limitations. In Malaysia, mostly used transformer oil is mineral crude oils (uninhibited mineral oils) which contains Paraffic, Naphteric or mixed. It is supplied by Hyrax Oil Sdn. Bhd. 2.3.1 Transformer Oil Properties The main function of transformer oil is insulating and cooling of the transformer. It should have the following properties: High dielectric strength and good dielectric properties resulting in minimum power loss. Low viscosity improves cooling. Freedom from inorganic acids, alkali, and corrosive sulphur. Resistant to emulsification. Rapid settling of arc products. Low pour point. High flash point resulting in low evaporation losses due to high thermal stability. High resistivity gives better insulation values between windings. Excellent interfacial tension for quick water separation. Proven resistance to electrical stresses. High electrical strength. Remarkably low sludge and acidity formation in both ageing and oxidation tests gives longer life to oil and equipment during storage and service. 2.3.2 Theory of Transformer Oil Parameters Water Content The standard for measuring water contain in oil is IEC 60814. (Marcel Dekker, 1990). The important function in transformer oil is to provide electrical insulation. When oil has higher moisture content, it can reduce the insulating properties of the oil, which may result in dielectric breakdown. This is the particular importance with fluctuating temperatures because, transformer will cools down if any dissolved water will become free and this oil become poor insulating power and fluid degradation. (Azliza binti Mohd Jelan,2009). Breakdown Voltage Dielectric strength is one of the important properties in insulation field. Breakdown voltage in insulating material is the maximum electric field strength that it can be withstand intrinsically without breaking down and without experiencing failure of its insulating properties, dielectric strength also means that a certain configuration and electrode dielectric material that produces minimal damage to the electric field. (Rohaina bt Jaafar, 2003). Breakdown strength in liquid according to various factors influenced in the experiment which is electrode material and surface state, geometry electrode, the presence of chemical pollutants, the presence of physical pollutants, oil molecular structure, temperature and pressure. There also various factors in the theory of voltage breakdown which is like electronic theory, suspended particle theory, cavitations theory and bubble theory were postulated. (Olive Oil from the Tree to the Table). Dielectric strength is also very dependent on the time and method of tension, purity materials, the type of tension as well as experimental and environmental parameters, until set of dielectric strength unique to the specific material is difficult, a range of values can be found and used for application purposes. (Noraniza binti Toriman, 2003). Figure 2.4 Heating / Cooling Curve of Oil (Ahmad Norhakimi bin Ibrihim @ Ibrahim, 2010) 2.3.3 Types of Transformer Oil Mineral Transformer Oil (Mineral Based Oil) A mineral oil or liquid petroleum is a liquid by-product of the distillation of petroleum to produce gasoline and other petroleum based products from crude oil. A mineral oil in this sense is a transparent, colourless oil composed mainly of alkenes (typically 15 to 40 carbons) and cyclic paraffin, related to petroleum jelly (also known as white petrolatum). It has a density of around 0.8 g/cm3. Mineral oil is a substance of relatively low value, and it is produced in very large quantities. Mineral oil is available in light and heavy grades, and can often be found in drug stores. There are three basic classes of refined mineral oils: Paraffinic oils, based on n-alkenes. Naphthenic oils, based on cycloalkanes. Aromatic oils, based on aromatic hydrocarbons (not to be confused with essential oils). Table 2.1 Properties of Mineral Transformer Oil (http://www.substech.com) Property Value in metric unit Value in US unit Density at 60 °F (15.6 °C) 0.880 *10 ³ kg/m ³ 54.9 lb/ft ³ Kinematic viscosity at 68 °F (20 °C) 22 cSt 22 cSt Kinematic viscosity at 212 °F (100 °C) 2.6 cSt 2.6 cSt Fire point 170  °C 338  °F Pour Point -50  °C -58  °F Flash point 160  °C 320  °F Auto ignition point 280  °C 536  °F Specific heat capacity 1860 J/(kg*K) 0.444 BTU/(lb* °F) Thermal conductivity at 20 °C (68 °F) 0.126 W/(m*K) 0.875 BTU*in/(hr*ft ²* °F) Thermal expansion at 20 °C (68 °F) 7.5*10-4  °Cˆ°Ã‚ ¹ 4.2*10-4 in/(in*  °F) Breakdown strength min.70 kV min.70 kV Dielectric dissipation factor at 90 °C (194 °F) max.0.002 max.0.002 Permittivity at 20 °C (68 °F) 2.2 2.2 Silicon Transformer Oil (Polydimethylsiloxane based fluid) Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) belongs to a group of polymeric organosilicon compounds that are commonly referred to as silicones. PDMS is the most widely used silicon-based organic polymer, and is particularly known for its unusual rheological (or flow) properties. PDMS is optically clear, and, in general, is considered to be inert, non-toxic and non-flammable. It is occasionally called dimethicone and is one of several types of silicone oil (polymerized siloxane). Its applications range from contact lenses and medical devices to elastomers; it is present, also, in shampoos (as dimethicone makes hair shiny and slippery), caulking, lubricating oils, and heat-resistant tiles. Table 2.2 Properties of Silicon Transformer Oil (http://www.substech.com) Property Value in metric unit Value in US unit Density at 60 °F (15.6 °C) 0.960 *10 ³ kg/m ³ 59.9 lb/ft ³ Kinematic viscosity at 68 °F (20 °C) 55 cSt 55 cSt Kinematic viscosity at 212 °F (100 °C) 15 cSt 15 cSt Fire point min.350  °C min.662  °F Pour Point max.-50  °C max.-58  °F Flash point min.300  °C min.572  °F Auto ignition point 435  °C 815  °F Specific heat capacity 1510 J/(kg*K) 0.360 BTU/(lb* °F) Thermal conductivity at 20 °C (68 °F) 0.15 W/(m*K) 1.019 BTU*in/(hr*ft ²* °F) Thermal expansion at 20 °C (68 °F) 10.4*10-4  °Cˆ°Ã‚ ¹ 5.8*10-4 in/(in*  °F) Breakdown strength 50 kV 50 kV Dielectric dissipation factor at 90 °C (194 °F) max.0.001 max.0.001 Permittivity at 20 °C (68 °F) 2.7 2.7 Synthetic Transformer Oil (Organic Esters Based Fluid) Synthetic oil is a lubricant consisting of chemical compounds which are artificially made (synthesized) using chemically modified petroleum components rather than whole crude oil. Synthetic oil is used as a substitute for lubricant refined from petroleum when operating in extremes of temperature, because it generally provides superior mechanical and chemical properties than those found in traditional mineral oils. Table 2.3 Properties of Synthetic Transformer Oil (http://www.substech.com) Property Value in metric unit Value in US unit Density at 60 °F (15.6 °C) 0.970 *10 ³ kg/m ³ 60.6 lb/ft ³ Kinematic viscosity at 68 °F (20 °C) 70 cSt 70 cSt Kinematic viscosity at 212 °F (100 °C) 5.3 cSt 5.3 cSt Fire point 322  °C 612  °F Pour Point -60  °C -76  °F Flash point 275  °C 527  °F Autoignition point 438  °C 820  °F Specific heat capacity 1880 J/(kg*K) 0.448 BTU/(lb* °F) Thermal conductivity at 20 °C (68 °F) 0.144 W/(m*K) 0.98 BTU*in/(hr*ft ²* °F) Thermal expansion at 20 °C (68 °F) 7.5*10-4  °Cˆ°Ã‚ ¹ 4.2*10-4 in/(in*  °F) Breakdown strength min.75 kV min.75 kV Dielectric dissipation factor at 90 °C (194 °F) max.0.006 max.0.006 Permitivity at 20 °C (68 °F) 3.2 3.2 2.3.4 Transformer Oil Testing Regular sampling and testing of insulation oil taken from transformers is a valuable technique in a preventative maintenance program. If a proactive approach is adopted based on the condition of the transformer oil, the life of the transformer can be extended. Hence, transformer oil must be periodically tested to ensure its basic electrical properties. These tests can be divided into: Liquid Power Factor The IEC standard method for this test is IEC 247. This involves measuring the power loss through a thin film of liquid test. Water, contamination, and the decay products of oil oxidation tend to increase the power factor of oil. The new oil has very low power factor less than 0.1% at 25  ° C and 1.0% at 90  ° C. As the oil ages and moisture accumulates, or if the unit is contaminated, the liquid power factor tends to increase. Many owners make the mistake of having this transformer testing at only one temperature. While the test is more sensitive to 90  ° C, both the temperature should be used. The relationship between 25  ° and 90 ° values can assist in making the diagnosis as to whether the problem of moisture, oxidation, or contamination. (A Guide to Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) Dielectric Breakdown Strength The dielectric breakdown voltage is a measure of the ability of the oil to withstand electric stress. Dry and clean oil showed the inherent high breakdown voltage. Free water and solid particles, especially the latter in combination with high levels of dissolved water, tend to migrate to areas of high electric stress and dramatically reduce the breakdown voltage. The measurement of breakdown voltage, therefore, serves primarily to indicate the presence of contaminants such as water or conducting particles. A low breakdown voltage can be indicating that one or more of these are present. However, a high breakdown voltage does not necessarily indicate the absence of all contaminants. This test was conducted in accordance with IEC 156. (A Guide to Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) Moisture The purpose of dielectric tests are conducted is to ensure the monitoring moisture can be done directly. IEC 733 is a well established and can measure the moisture down to the low part of the million levels. While the acceptable values have been set by the voltage class for moisture, these are somewhat misleading. A truer picture of moisture in the transformer must be taken into account so that percentage saturation of the oil by moisture and percentage moisture by dry weight of the solid insulation can be calculated. A transformer at 20  ° C that containing 20 ppm moisture in oil is considerably wetter than a same unit, with a similar 20 ppm moisture, but it is operating at 40  ° C. The new transformer must be less than 0.5% moisture by dry weight. Anything more than 3.0% (or 30% saturation) is considered very wet. Many owners dehydrate transformer when the moisture level exceed 1.5 to 2.0% moisture by dry weight. (A Guide to Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) Neutralization Number (Acidity) This value, measured by IEC standard method IEC 1125A reported as mg KOH / g sample, reports the relative amount of oil oxidation products, especially acids, alcohol and soap. As oil continues to oxidize, the acid increased gradually, generally over the years. Running the acid number regularly provides guidance as to how far oxidation of the oil has proceeded. The acceptable limit by the test is usually used as general guidelines to determine when the oil should be replaced or reclaimed. Acceptable values for acid number are 0.20 and lower. Unacceptable values are over 0.20.These are the values that are used by TNB. (A Guide to Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) Interfacial Tension The test methods for interfacial tension (IFT), IEC 6295, measuring the strength in mN/m from the interface that will form between service aged oil and distilled water. Because the decay products of oil oxidation are oil and water soluble, their presence would tend to weaken the interface and reduce the interfacial tension value. Brand new oil is often 40-50 mN/m. A value that is acceptable for the in-service oil is greater than 25 mN/m or greater; unacceptable results are below 28 mN/m. (A Guide to Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) Colour/Visual Field inspection of liquid insulation (IEC 296) includes examination for the presence of cloudy or sediment and the general appearance as well as a colour inspection. As oil ages, it will be darken gradually. Very dark oil or oil that changes drastically over a short period of time may indicate a problem. Any cloudiness or sediment indicates the presence of free water or particles that may be harmful to continued the equipment operation. Taken alone, without considering the past history or other test parameters, the colour is not very important to diagnose transformer problems. If the oil has an acrid or unusual odor, consideration should be given to carrying out further tests. (A Guide To Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) Sludge/Sediment The IEC 296 test distinguishes between the sediment and sludge. Sediment is an insoluble substance present in the oil. Sediment may consist of insoluble oxidation or degradation products of solid or liquid materials, solid products such as carbon or metallic oxide and fibres or other foreign matter. Sludge is polymerized oxidation products of solid and liquid insulating material. Sludge is soluble in oil up to a certain limit. At sludge levels above this, the sludge comes out of the solution contributing an additional component to the sediment. The presence of sludge and sediment can change the electrical properties of the oil and prevent the exchange of heat, so encouraging damage to the insulating material. (A Guide to Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) Inhibitor Content Inhibited oil deteriorates more slowly than uninhibited oil so long as active oxidation inhibitor is present. However, after the oxidation inhibitor is consumed, the oil can be oxidized at a higher level. Determination of oxidation inhibitor remaining in the in-service transformer oil is based on IEC 666. (A Guide to Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) Dissolved Gas Analysis In contrast to the tests and the methods discussed to this point, the dissolved gas analysis (DGA) did not measure the gradual changes in the quality of oil. DGA has a very limited utility in determining the continued suitability of the transformer oil. The purpose and functions of the DGA is to provide an indication as to whether there may be an active or incipient transformer fault affecting the operation and continued health of the equipment. DGA is used to detect and measure nine of dissolved gases which are Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Methane, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide, Ethan, Ethylene, and Acetylene. (A Guide To Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) Dissolved Metals Analysis Analysis of dissolved metals (in particular, for the three metals: iron, copper, and aluminium) can be used in further identifying the location of transformer faults discovered by dissolved gas analysis. For example, the dissolved metal analysis indicating the presences of conductor metals may indicate a fault is occurring in the winding or at a connection while the presence of iron indicates involvement of the core steel. (A Guide To Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) Furanic Compounds When paper breaks down, the cellulose chains are broken and glucose molecules (which serve as the building blocks of the cellulose) are chemically changed. Each of the glucose monomer molecules that are removed from the polymer chain becomes one of a series of related compounds called furans or furanic compounds. Because these furanic compounds are partially soluble in oil, they are present in both the oil and the paper. Measuring the concentration of the oil can tell us a little more about the paper. The standard method typically tests for five compounds that are normally only present in the oil as a result of the paper breaking down. Those five compounds, and their probable causes, are 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde, 5H2F (typically formed by oxidation of paper), 2-furyl alcohol, 2FOL (typically formed in connection with a high moisture content), 2-furaldehyde, 2FAL (very common, formed by all overheating and aging conditions), 2-acetyl furan, 2ACF (very rare, may be related to elec trical stress), and 5-methyl-2furaldehyde, 5M2F (typically formed as a result of overheating). (A Guide To Transformer Oil Analysis, by I.A.R. GRAY) 2.3.4 Instrument / Device for Transformer Oil Testing Oil Test Set (Megger OTS 60 PB) The OTS 60PB is a 0 60 kV, battery powered portable dielectric strength oil test set. Its size and weight make it suitable for on-site assessment of insulating oil quality. The dielectric strength test it performs is an important deciding factor in knowing whether to retain or replace the oil. Breakdown voltage is measured, averaged and displayed under the control of built-in programmed sequences. Go/no-go testing is available. Figure 2.4 Oil Test Set (Megger OTS 60 PB) OTS 60PB follows the oil testing sequences described in many national and other specifications among which are: British BS 148, BS 5730a (automatic proof testing), BS 5874; International IEC 156, American ASTM D877 ASTM D1816, German VDE 0370, French NFC 27, Spanish UNE 21, Italian CEI 10-1, Russian GOCT 6581, South African SABS 555, Australian AS 1767 and Institute of Petroleum IP 295. Two types of withstand (proof) testing of an oil sample are available. The principle with these tests is to subject the oil sample to a specified voltage for a defined length of time (1 minute) to see if it will withstand that voltage. In one of the tests the voltage is removed after a minute, in the other test, the voltage continues to rise after the minute until breakdown or the maximum value is reached. Withstand (proof) tests can be set up to the users own requirements, and then repeatedly called up to quickly test oil under known fixed conditions. The OTS 60PB is used for determining the dielectric strength of liquid insulants such as insulating oils used in transformers, switchgear, cables and other electrical apparatus. It is portable and suitable for testing on site as well as in the laboratory. The test set is fully automatic. The operator has only to prepare the test vessel, load it with sample oil, place it in the test chamber, select the appropriate specification for the tests and then start the test sequence. The test set carries out automatically (and if necessary unattended) the sequence of tests as defined by the pre-selected national specification. Oil testing specifications, for which the set is pre-programmed, are as follows:- Figure 2.5 Oil testing specifications A 5 minute test sequence is also provided so that the operator may quickly obtain an idea of the breakdown value of an oil sample. Two types of semi automatic withstand (proof) testing of an oil sample are available. The principle with these tests is to subject the oil sample to a specified voltage for a defined length of time (1 minute) to see if it will withstand that voltage. In one of the tests the voltage is removed after a minute, in the other test the voltage continues to rise after passing for one minute until breakdown or the maximum value is reached. Withstand (proof) tests can be set up to the users own requirements, and then repeatedly called up to quickly test oil under known fixed conditions. The test results can be reviewed on the LCD or printed via the RS232 interface. An optional, battery operated printer is available to obtain a hard copy of the results. The safety features incorporated in the test sets design include two forced break switches used as described in B S 5304. These are interlocked with the oil vessel loading door. Volumetric titration system Metrohm Titrino SM 702 An automatic potentiometric titration system Titrino SM 702 with Exchange Unit 806 made by Metrohm measured the acidity of the oils. Here the Total Acid Number (TAN) was determined by a volumetric titration with potash to neutralize the carboxylic acids. The titration took place as follows: At first 10 g of the oil were dissolved in 40 ml of solvent toluene / ethanol in a ratio of 5 to 4. Potash (KOH, 0,1 mol/l) was added as titre with volume increments of 0.001 ml or 0.005 ml depending on the expected acidity. The system detects, when the acid-base-equivalence-point EP is reached by a voltage measurement in the solution. From the volume of potash at the EP equation below calculates the acidity as TAN: TAN total acid number EP1 equivalent point C31 blind value of the solvent toluene/ethanol CO1 0.1 mol/L, concentration of titre CO2 1 CO3 56106 g/mol, molar mass of titre CO0 weight of the oil sample Figure 2.6 Volumetric itration systems Metrohm Titrino SM 702 Kelman TRANSPORT X Portable DGA Unit And Moisture In Oil Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) is an established technique and is recognised as the most important test in monitoring power transformers. It is now being successfully extended to other oil filled equipment such as tap changers and circuit breakers. The TRANSPORT X unit has been designed to be very rugged and user friendly with an emphasis placed on field operation. The unit is used by over 200 companies and utilities and has sold in excess of 600 units worldwide. Figure 2.7 Kelman TRANSPORT X Portable DGA Unit And Moisture In Oil The TRANSPORT X test uses state of the art infrared measurement technology to give accurate, reliable results in a matter of minutes. The TRANSPORT X product represents an invaluable tool for Asset Management and will increase the power of any DGA program. Extensive field and laboratory use worldwide has proven that the TRANSPORT X test gives highly reliable results and that it is genuinely suitable for field conditions. The TRANSPORT X equip